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A major demographic difference between pre-industrial societies and today was the prevalence of infant mortality. In some periods, it is estimated that almost a third of babies born would not live to see their first birthday. In other periods, the absence of pandemics, and improvements in living standards saw lower rates of infant mortality. However, the introduction of vaccination, followed by other medical advances, was the most significant factor in reducing infant mortality, and kickstarting the demographic transition across the globe. Today, in the most developed countries, infant mortality is as low as 1.5 deaths per 1,000 births; compared to over 100 deaths per 1,000 births in Afghanistan.